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aureus BSI should be made in conjunction with an infectious diseases specialist; 14 days is currently regarded as a minimum.

Published data regarding oral treatment of coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) BSI are limited. Most CoNS bacteremia and up to 80% Staphylococcus epidermidis bacteremia represent blood culture contamination, though true infection from CoNS is not uncommon, particularly in patients with indwelling catheters.

60 An exception is the CoNS species Staphylococcus lugdunensis, which is more virulent, and bacteremia with this organism usually warrants antibiotics. Oral antimicrobial therapy is currently not a standard treatment practice for CoNS BSI that is felt to represent true infection; however, linezolid has been successfully used in case series. aureus, infective endocarditis must be ruled out when treating enterococcus BSI; a scoring system has been proposed to assist in deciding if such patients require echocardiography.

62 Intravenous ampicillin is a preferred, highly effective agent for enterococci treatment when the organism is susceptible. 44 However, oral ampicillin has poor bioavailability (50%), and data for its use in BSI are lacking.

For susceptible strains, amoxicillin has comparable efficacy for enterococci and enhanced bioavailability (85%); high dose oral amoxicillin could be considered, but there is minimal clinical trial data to support this approach.

Fluoroquinolones exhibit only modest activity against enterococci and would be an inferior choice for BSI. 63 Although often sensitive to oral tetracyclines, data on their use in enterococcal BSI are insufficient. Nitrofurantoin can be used for susceptible enterococcal urinary tract infection; however, it does not achieve high blood concentrations and should not be used for BSI. There is significant data comparing oral linezolid with intravenous

daptomycin

65 A subsequent study reported that VRE BSI treatment with linezolid is associated with significantly higher treatment failure and mortality compared with daptomycin therapy. 66 Further research is needed, but should the side-effect profile of linezolid be tolerable, it remains an effective option for oral treatment of enterococcal BSIs.

Evidence Regarding Anaerobic Bacterial Blood Stream Infection.

Anaerobic bacteria include Bacteroides, Prevotella, Porphyromonas, Fusobacterium, Peptostreptococcus, Veillonella, and Clostridium.

Anaerobes account for approximately 4% of bacterial BSIs, and are often seen in the context of polymicrobial infection.

67 Given that anaerobes are difficult to recover, and that antimicrobial resistance testing is more labor intensive, antibiotic therapy choices are often made empirically. 67 Unfortunately, antibiotic resistance amongst anaerobes is increasing. 68 However, metronidazole remains highly active against a majority of anaerobes, with only a handful of treatment failures reported, 69 and has a highly favorable pharmacokinetic profile for oral treatment. Oral metronidazole remains an effective choice for many anaerobic BSIs.

Considering the polymicrobial nature of many anaerobic infections, source control is important, and concomitant GNR infection must be ruled out before using metronidazole monotherapy.

Clindamycin has significant anaerobic activity, but Bacteroides resistance has increased significantly in recent years, as high as 26%-44%. 70 Amoxicillin-clavulanate has good anaerobic coverage, but bioavailability of clavulanate is limited (50%), making it inferior for BSI. Bioavailability is also limited for cephalosporins with anaerobic activity, such as cefuroxime.

Moxifloxacin is a fluoroquinolone with some anaerobic coverage and a amoxicillin for chest infection good oral pharmacokinetic profile, but Bacteroides resistance can be as high as 50%, making it a risky empiric choice.

Bacterial BSIs are common and result in significant morbidity and mortality, with high associated healthcare costs.

Although BSIs are traditionally treated with intravenous antimicrobials, many BSIs can be safely and effectively cured using oral antibiotics. When appropriately selected, oral antibiotics offer lower costs, fewer side effects, promote antimicrobial stewardship, and are easier for patients. Ultimately, the decision to use oral versus intravenous antibiotics must consider the characteristics of the pathogen, patient, and drug.

None of the authors report any conflicts of interest.

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