Amoxiclav 125 mg

It has the gram-positive activity that first-generation cephalosporins have and adds activity against P mirabilis, H influenzae, E coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and Moraxella catarrhalis. This agent is indicated for management of infections caused by susceptible mixed aerobic-anaerobic microorganisms.

Determine the proper dosage and route based on the condition of the patient, the severity of the infection, and the susceptibility of the causative organism. Cefuroxime (Ceftin) Cefuroxime is a second-generation cephalosporin that maintains the gram-positive activity of first-generation cephalosporins and adds activity against P mirabilis, H influenzae, E coli, K pneumoniae, and M catarrhalis. This agent binds to penicillin-binding proteins and inhibits the final transpeptidation step of peptidoglycan synthesis, resulting in bacterial cell wall death.

The condition of the patient, the severity of the infection, and the susceptibility of the microorganism determine the proper dose and route of administration. Third-generation cephalosporins are less active against gram-positive organisms compared with first-generation cephalosporins.

They are highly active against Enterobacteriaceae, Neisseria , and H influenzae .

Cefotaxime (Claforan) Cefotaxime is a third-generation cephalosporin with a broad gram-negative spectrum, lower efficacy against gram-positive organisms, and higher efficacy against resistant organisms. It arrests bacterial cell wall synthesis by binding to 1 or more penicillin-binding proteins, which, in turn, inhibits bacterial growth.

Its safety profile is more favorable than that of aminoglycosides. Macrolides are appropriate for the treatment of group A streptococcal infection in patients with penicillin sensitivity. They are also used for some cases of rhinosinusitis, pertussis, and diphtheria. Macrolides block transpeptidation by binding to the 50S ribosome.

Erythromycin (E.E.S., Erythrocin, E-Mycin, Eryc) Erythromycin covers most potential etiologic agents in rhinosinusitis, including Mycoplasma species; however, it is less active against H influenzae. It inhibits bacterial growth, possibly by blocking dissociation of peptidyl transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) from ribosomes, causing RNA-dependent protein synthesis to arrest. It is indicated for treatment of staphylococcal and streptococcal infections.

This agent has the added advantage of being a good anti-inflammatory agent by inhibiting migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes. In children, the patient's age and weight and the severity of the infection determine proper dosage.

When twice-daily dosing is desired, half the total daily

dose

Patients may require an alternative macrolide or a change to 3-times-daily dosing. Although the standard course of

treatment

Azithromycin (Zithromax) Azithromycin acts by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit of susceptible microorganisms and blocks dissociation of peptidyl tRNA from ribosomes, causing RNA-dependent

protein

In vivo studies suggest that the concentration in phagocytes may contribute to drug distribution to inflamed tissues. Azithromycin is used for the treatment of mild to moderate microbial infections, including group A streptococcal infection and pertussis. Plasma concentrations are very low, but tissue concentrations are much higher, giving it value in treating intracellular organisms.

The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has warned that azithromycin may lead to QT interval

prolongation

The FDA notes that "health care professionals should consider the risk of fatal heart rhythms with azithromycin when considering treatment options for patients who are already at risk for cardiovascular events." These include patients with known QT interval prolongation, torsades de pointes, congenital long QT syndrome, bradyarrhythmias, or uncompensated heart failure. Clarithromycin (Biaxin) Clarithromycin is a semisynthetic macrolide antibiotic that reversibly binds to the P site of the 50S ribosomal subunit of susceptible organisms and may inhibit RNA-dependent protein synthesis by stimulating dissociation of peptidyl t-RNA from ribosomes, causing bacterial growth inhibition. Acetaminophen (Tylenol, Feverall, Tempra) Acetaminophen is the drug of choice for pain relief in patients with documented hypersensitivity to aspirin or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), who have upper gastrointestinal disease, or who are taking oral anticoagulants. It reduces fever by directly acting on hypothalamic heat-regulating centers, increasing dissipation of body heat by means of vasodilation and sweating. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are reversible inhibitors of cyclo-oxygenase–1 (COX-1) and COX-2 enzymes, which results in decreased formation of prostaglandin precursors. NSAIDs have antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-inflammatory properties.

NSAIDs typically contain a black-box warning about an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular thrombotic events, including myocardial infarction and stroke.

Another black-box warning related to NSAIDs comments on the increased risk of gastrointestinal irritation, inflammation, ulceration, bleeding, and perforation with the use of these drugs.

Naproxen (Aleve, Naprosyn, Naproxen SR, Anaprox) Naproxen is indicated for mild to moderate pain.

Other indications include ankylosing spondylitis, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid disorders. Onset of action for relieving pain is typically 1 hour.

Ibuprofen (Motrin, NeoProfen, Caldolor, Advil) Ibuprofen is indicated for mild to moderate pain.

Other indications include inflammatory diseases and rheumatoid disorders.

It is available in oral forms, as well as in an injection form.

Onset of action for relieving pain is typically 30 to 60 minutes. Parasympatholytic inhalers inhibit vagally mediated reflexes by antagonizing the action of acetylcholine released by the vagus nerve.

This action prevents the increase in intracellular concentration of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) caused by the interaction of acetylcholine and muscarinic receptors on bronchial smooth muscle.

These agents help to reduce mucus in the lungs and relax the smooth muscles of large and medium bronchi.

They may be used with short-acting beta 2 -adrenergic bronchodilators.

Ipratropium (Atrovent, Atrovent HFA) Ipratropium, which is chemically related to atropine, has antisecretory properties.

When applied locally, it inhibits secretions from serous and seromucous glands lining the nasal mucosa.

These agents act by competitively inhibiting histamine at the H1 receptor.

This effect mediates bronchial constriction, mucus secretion, smooth muscle contraction, and edema.

Diphenhydramine (Benadryl, Benylin) Diphenhydramine is a first-generation antihistamine with anticholinergic effects. Chlorpheniramine (Chlor-Trimeton) Chlorpheniramine is a first-generation agent that competes with histamine or H1-receptor sites on effector cells in blood vessels and the respiratory tract. It is one of the safest antihistamines to use during pregnancy.

Brompheniramine (Bromphen) This oral H1 blocker is used for allergic conjunctivitis and rhinitis, angioedema, pruritus, and urticaria. It does not tend to cause drowsiness and is suitable to use on a day-to-day basis.

Several agents (eg, codeine, guaifenesin, dextromethorphan) are intended for the symptomatic relief of cough.

However, evidence is mixed regarding the effectiveness of these agents. Cough and cold

medicines

should

Opioid analgesics bind to opioid receptors in the central nervous system, thus inhibiting pain

pathways

Codeine is a centrally acting antitussive that also helps to

manage

disease

Steroids are used to decrease edema by suppressing local inflammation. They are frequently used to manage croup, and they may reduce the need for racemic epinephrine inhalation.

Dexamethasone (Decadron, Dexasone) Dexamethasone decreases inflammation by suppressing migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes and reducing capillary permeability.

Prednisone in equivalent doses may be substituted if administered over the course of 5 days.

These drugs are typically used to relieve nasal symptoms.

Decongestants

have

In 2008, the Consumer Healthcare Products Association modified many over-the-counter cough and cold product labels to state "do not use" in children younger than 4 years. Pseudoephedrine (Sudafed) This agent causes vasoconstriction by directly stimulating alpha-adrenergic receptors in the respiratory mucosa. It is used for symptomatic relief of nasal congestion due to common cold, upper respiratory tract allergies, and sinusitis.

Oxymetazoline (Allerest, Afrin, Dristan, Chlorphed) Stimulates alpha-adrenergic receptors and causes vasoconstriction when applied directly to mucous membranes. Decongestion occurs without drastic changes in blood pressure, vascular redistribution, or cardiac stimulation. These agents are typically used to relieve nasal symptoms. Phenylephrine nasal (NeoSynephrine Nasal) This agent is a strong postsynaptic alpha-receptor stimulant with little beta-adrenergic activity that produces vasoconstriction of arterioles in the body. Oxymetazoline (Afrin, Dristan 12 Hr Vicks Sinex 12 Hour) Oxymetazoline stimulates alpha-adrenergic receptors and causes vasoconstriction when applied directly to mucous membranes.

Decongestion occurs without drastic changes in blood pressure, vascular redistribution, or cardiac stimulation. [Guideline] Bisno AL, Gerber MA, Gwaltney JM Jr, Kaplan EL, Schwartz RH. Diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: a practice guideline. [Guideline] Shulman ST, Bisno AL, Clegg HW, Gerber MA, Kaplan EL, Lee G, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of group A streptococcal pharyngitis: 2012 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America. [Guideline] Wald ER, Applegate KE, Bordley C, Darrow DH, Glode MP, Marcy SM, et al.

Clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis and management of acute bacterial sinusitis in children aged 1 to 18 years.

Available at http://health.utah.gov/epi/diseases/pertussis/pertussis_sounds.htm. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/clinical/features.html.

Ahovuo-Saloranta A, Borisenko OV, Kovanen N, Varonen H,

Rautakorpi

Immunogenetic factors associated with severe respiratory illness caused by zoonotic H1N1 and H5N1 influenza viruses.

Meriluoto M, Hedman L, Tanner L, Simell V, Makinen M, Simell S, et al. Association of human bocavirus 1 infection with respiratory disease in childhood follow-up study, Finland. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/hi-disease/clinicians.html. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/respiratory/hpivfeat.htm.

[Guideline] Schwartz SR, Cohen SM, Dailey SH, et al.

Clinical practice guideline: hoarseness (dysphonia).

National Ambulatory Medical Care Survey: 2006 Summary. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhsr/nhsr003.pdf. Acute sinusitis: a cost-effective approach to diagnosis and treatment.

Available at http://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/community/hcp-info-sheets/adult-nurti.pdf.

Acute epiglottitis: epidemiology and Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype distribution in adults. Pertussis (Whooping Cough) Surveillance & Reporting.

Available at http://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/surv-reporting.html. Bettiol S, Wang K, Thompson MJ, Roberts NW, Perera R, Heneghan CJ, et al.

Symptomatic treatment of the cough in whooping cough. Outbreaks of respiratory illness mistakenly attributed to pertussis--New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Tennessee, 2004-2006. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/disease/index.htm. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/diseases/ebv.htm. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/diseaseinfo/diptheria_t.htm. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases.

Available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/commoncold/Pages/default.aspx. Upper

respiratory

Seasonal Influenza (Flu): Seasonal Influenza-Associated Hospitalizations in the United States.

Available at http://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/qa/hospital.htm.

Pertussis (Whooping Cough): Clinical Complications.

Available at http://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/clinical/complications.html. Arola M, Ruuskanen O, Ziegler T, Mertsola J, Nanto-Salonen K, Putto-Laurila A, et al.

Clinical role of respiratory virus infection in acute otitis media. Pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococci (PANDAS): update.

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Available at http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/commonCold/Pages/symptoms.aspx. Sexually Transmitted Diseases Treatment Guidelines, 2010.

Available at http://www.cdc.gov/std/treatment/2010/gonococcal-infections.htm.

Full text: http://cid.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2012/09/06/cid.cis629.full.

Available at http://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/clinical/diagnostic-testing/specimen-collection.html. Acute sinusitis: current status of etiologies, diagnosis, and treatment.

Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2006. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/pertussis/clinical/diagnostic-testing/index.html.

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Adverse effects of racemic epinephrine in epiglottitis. Weber JE, Chudnofsky CR, Younger JG, Larkin GL, Boczar M, Wilkerson MD, et al. A randomized comparison of helium-oxygen mixture (Heliox) and racemic epinephrine for the treatment of moderate to severe croup.

[Guideline]